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Abstract

BACKGROUND

West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic mosquito-borne pathogen increasingly reported in Europe.

AIM

We aimed to characterise heterogeneities in the average annual human risk of WNV infection (force of infection, FOI) and in WNV surveillance across Europe.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines to identify serological studies on WNV in humans with IgG-based assays in Europe. We then used mathematical models fitted to both age-stratified serosurvey and case data to reconstruct spatially explicit FOI estimates, the sensitivity of syndromic surveillance and age-dependent trends in case reporting.

RESULTS

We extracted 92 serosurvey datasets from 21 countries. Based on 10 age-stratified serosurvey datasets from Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Spain and case data from seven countries (Austria, Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Spain), we estimated the WNV FOI for 119 European nomenclature of territorial units for statistics level (NUTS) 0-3 regions. We found evidence of spatial heterogeneities in transmission intensity and estimated that on average less than 0.2% of human WNV infections were notified, with country variability and age-dependent trends in the propensity of reporting WNV disease.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that the intensity of WNV transmission, the average annual incidence of infection and the sensitivity of surveillance are heterogeneous across Europe. Due to differences in case reporting across countries, the incidence of reported WNV cases does not necessarily reflect the same proportion of WNV infections and hence the actual infection incidence, which highlights the importance of conducting WNV seroprevalence surveys.

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2026-07-18
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Modelling the risk of West Nile virus infection in seven European countries from published serological and case notification data, 2008 to 2022
<p class="citation"> <span>Citation style for this article:</span> <span class="meta-value authors"> <a href="/search?value1=Hailin+Feng&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Feng Hailin</a>, <a href="/search?value1=Giovanni+Marini&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Marini Giovanni</a>, <a href="/search?value1=%C3%89va+Barab%C3%A1s&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Barabás Éva</a>, <a href="/search?value1=Michalis+Koureas&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Koureas Michalis</a>, <a href="/search?value1=Varvara+A+Mouchtouri&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Mouchtouri Varvara A</a>, <a href="/search?value1=Ilaria+Dorigatti&option1=author&noRedirect=true" class="nonDisambigAuthorLink">Dorigatti Ilaria</a></span>. Modelling the risk of West Nile virus infection in seven European countries from published serological and case notification data, 2008 to 2022. <a href="/content/ecdc">Euro Surveill.</a> 2026;31(22):pii=2500394. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2026.31.22.2500394" title="doi link" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2026.31.22.2500394</a> <span class="ES_Article_citation"> <span class="generated">Received</span>: 04 Jun 2025;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span class="generated">Accepted</span>: 03 Mar 2026 </span> </p>
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